Novitas-ROYAL, 2007, Vol.: 1 (2), 84-91.[i]
LEARNING VOCABULARY IN EFL CONTEXTS THROUGH
VOCABULARY LEARNING STRATEGIES
Abstract: Vocabulary learning is one of the major challenges
foreign language learners face during the process of
learning a language. One way
to alley the burden is to assist students in becoming independent learners during the process of L2 vocabulary learning. This could be
achieved through instructing learners to apply vocabulary learning strategies
as efficiently as possible. The main pursuit of the present article is to
suggest a framework for training EFL learners in vocabulary learning
strategies. In so doing, an account of different taxonomies of vocabulary
learning strategies and a rationale for strategy training are presented.
Keywords: vocabulary, learning,
strategy, style, training, independent learning
Özet: Yabancı dil
öğrenirken, öğrencilerin karşılaştığı en büyük zorluklardan bir tanesi de
kelime öğrenmektir. Bu zorluğu aşabilme yöntemlerinden biri, öğrencileri dil
öğrenme sürecinde bağımsız kılabilmektir. Bu da ancak öğrencilere kelime
öğrenme stratejilerini en etkin biçimde nasıl kullanabileceklerini öğretme ile
mümkündür. Bu çalışmanın amacı, İngilizceyi yabancı dil olarak öğrenen öğrencilere
yönelik, kelime öğrenme stratejileri eğitiminin genel bir çerçevesini
çizmektir. Ayrıca, kelime öğrenme stratejilerine ait farklı sınıflandırmalar ve
strateji eğitiminin gerekliliğine dair sebepler sunulacaktır.
Anahtar Sözcükler: kelime, öğrenme, strateji,
stil, eğitim, bağımsız öğrenme
1. INTRODUCTION
Vocabulary is
central to language and is of great significance to language learners.
Words are the building blocks of a language since they label objects, actions, ideas without which people cannot convey the intended meaning. The prominent
role of vocabulary knowledge in second or foreign language learning has been
recently recognized by theorists and researchers in the field. Accordingly,
numerous types of approaches, techniques, exercises and practice have been
introduced into the field to teach vocabulary (Hatch & Brown, 1995). It has
been suggested that teaching vocabulary should not only consist of teaching
specific words but also aim at equipping learners with strategies necessary to
expand their vocabulary knowledge (Hulstjin, 1993, cited in Morin & Goebel, 2001).
Vocabulary
learning strategies are one part of language learning strategies which in turn
are part of general learning strategies (Nation, 2001). Language learning
strategies encourage greater overall self-direction for learners. Self-directed
learners are independent learners who are capable of assuming responsibility
for their own learning and gradually gaining
confidence, involvement and proficiency (
Hence, based
on the significance attributed to vocabulary learning strategies in the process
of vocabulary learning and enhancement, the present paper aims at proposing a framework for
vocabulary strategy instruction in English as a foreign language (EFL) contexts.
To this end, a brief account of various taxonomies of vocabulary learning
strategies and a rationale for training students in vocabulary learning strategies
are initially presented. Then, some required considerations to be taken before initiating the strategy
training as well as the techniques for training EFL students in vocabulary
learning strategies are presented. Finally, some pedagogical implications are
proposed for EFL teachers.
2.
TAXONOMIES OF VOCABULARY LEARNING STRATEGIES
Word
knowledge is an essential component of communicative competence (Seal, 1991),
and it is important for both production and comprehension in a foreign
language. Knowing a word involves knowing:
·
a
great deal about its general frequency of use, syntactic and situational
limitations on its use,
·
its
underlying form and the forms that can be derived from it,
·
the
network of its semantic features and,
·
the
various meanings associated with the item.
(Richards,
1976)
Knowing a word
is also defined as knowing its spelling, pronunciation, collocations (i.e.
words it co-occurs with), and appropriateness (Nation, 1990). Therefore,
lexical competence is far more than the ability to define a given number
of words and covers a wide range of knowledge which in turn requires a variety
of strategies to gain the knowledge. Foreign language learners may then use various
strategies to acquire the target language word knowledge. Taking this into
consideration, second and foreign language researchers have made various
attempts to classify vocabulary learning strategies employed by foreign and
second language learners (F&SLL). Instances of such classifications are the
taxonomies proposed by Gu and Johnson (1996), Schmitt (1997) and Nation (2001) which
are briefly discussed below.
Gu and Johnson (1996) list second
language (L2)
vocabulary learning strategies as metacognitive, cognitive, memory and
activation strategies. Metacognitive strategies consist of selective attention
and self-initiation strategies. F&SLLs who employ selective attention strategies know
which words are important for them to learn and are essential for adequate
comprehension of a passage. Learners employing self-initiation strategies use a
variety of means to make the meaning of vocabulary items clear. Cognitive strategies in Gu and
Johnson’s taxonomy entail guessing strategies, skillful use of dictionaries and
note-taking strategies. Learners using guessing strategies draw upon their
background knowledge and use linguistic clues like grammatical structures of a
sentence to guess the meaning of a word. Memory strategies are classified into
rehearsal and encoding categories. Word lists and repetition are instances of
rehearsal strategies. Encoding strategies encompass such strategies as
association, imagery, visual, auditory, semantic, and contextual encoding as
well as word-structure (i.e., analyzing a word in terms of prefixes, stems, and
suffixes). Activation strategies include those strategies through which the
learners actually use new words in different contexts. For instance, learners
may set sentences
using the words they have just learned. All these suggested strategies can be
summarized in a table as follows:
|
Strategies |
|||
|
Metacognative |
Cognative |
Memory |
Activation |
|
* Selective Attention:
Identifying essential words for comprehension *
Self-initiation: Using a variety of means to make the meaning of words clear |
* Guessing: Activating background knowledge, using linguistic items * Use of dictionaries * Note-taking |
* Rehearsal: Word lists, repetition, etc.
* Encoding: Association
(imagery, visual, auditory, etc.) |
* Using new words in
different contexts |
A comprehensive inventory
of vocabulary learning strategies is developed by Schmitt (1997). He distinguishes
the strategies into two groups: The ones to determine the meaning of new
words when encountered for the first time, and the ones to consolidate meaning
when encountered
again. The former contains determination and social strategies and the latter
contains cognitive, metacognitive, memory and social strategies. Schmitt
includes social strategies in both categories since they can be used for both
purposes. To Schmitt,
determination strategies are used when “learners are faced with discovering a
new word’s meaning without recourse to another person’s experience” (p. 205).
Hence, learners try to discover the meaning of a new word by guessing it with
the help of context, structural knowledge of language, and reference materials.
For Schmitt, the second way to discover a new meaning is through employing the
social strategies of asking someone for help with the unknown words. Beside the
initial discovery of a word, learners need to employ a
variety of strategies to practise and retain vocabulary. Learners thus, use a
variety of social, memory, cognitive and metacognitive strategies to
consolidate their vocabulary knowledge. Cooperative group learning through
which learners study and practice the meaning of new words in a group is an
instance of social strategies for consolidating a word Memory strategies,
traditionally known as Mnemonics, involve relating the word with some
previously learned knowledge by using some
form of imagery or grouping. Cognitive strategies in this taxonomy are similar
to memory strategies but are not focused on manipulative mental processing.
They include repetition and using mechanical means such as word lists, flash
cards, and vocabulary notebooks to study words. Finally, metacognitive
strategies in Schmitt’s taxonomy are defined as strategies used by learners to
control and evaluate their own learning, by having an overview of the learning
process in general. Testing oneself is an instance of metacognitive strategies
which provides “input
to the effectiveness of one’s choice of learning strategies, providing positive
reinforcement if progress is being made or a signal to switch strategies if it
is not” (Schmitt, p.216).
In a more recent attempt, Nation (2001) proposes
taxonomy of various vocabulary learning strategies. The strategies in the
taxonomy are divided into three general classes of ‘planning’, ‘source’ and
‘processes’, each of which is divided into a subset of key strategies. The
taxonomy separates different aspects of vocabulary knowledge (i.e., what is involved in knowing a
word). The first
category (i.e., planning) involves deciding on where, how and how often to
focus attention on the vocabulary item. The strategies in this category are
choosing words, choosing aspects of word knowledge and choosing strategies as
well as planning repetition. The second category in Nation’s taxonomy involves
getting information about the word. This information may include all the
aspects involved in knowing a word. It can come from the word form itself, from
the context, from a reference source like dictionaries or glossaries and from analogies and connections with
other languages. Process is the last category in Nation’s (2001) taxonomy of
vocabulary learning strategies. It includes establishing word knowledge through
noticing, retrieving and generating strategies.
To Nation, noticing involves seeing
the word item to be learned. Strategies at this level include putting the word
in a vocabulary notebook or list; putting the word onto a word card and orally
and visually repeating the word. He argues that although these strategies are
all of recording type, they are useful steps resulting in deeper processing of
words. Retrieval involves recalling the items met before. It contains recalling
knowledge in the same way it was originally stored. Generating strategies
include “attaching new aspects of knowledge to what is known through
instantiation (i.e., visualizing examples of words), word analysis, semantic
mapping and using scales and grids (Nation, 2001, p. 222). Generating
strategies include rule-driven generation, as well; such as, creating context,
collocations and sentences containing the new word. Besides, the mnemonic
strategies and using the word in different context through four skills are also
defined as generating strategies.
In general, although the taxonomies cited above
may slightly differ in terms of strategies they categorize, they all provide a
list of widely applicable vocabulary learning strategies. There are many words
on which teachers may not be able to spend time within the class time limits.
Thus, if students are equipped with a number of the strategies mentioned in the
taxonomies, they can deal with these words on their own and as a result have
access to a large number of target language
words.
It has been suggested that one way to
accelerate the learning of a second or a foreign language is to teach learners
how to learn more efficiently and effectively. To this end, teachers are
recommended to train their students in different learning strategies. Learning
strategies instruction can help “EFL learners become better learners. In
addition, skill in using learning strategies assists students in becoming
independent, confident learners (Chamot, 1999, p.1). Research has also
demonstrated that there is a relationship between strategy use and success in
second or foreign language learning. For instance, Cohen and Aphek (1981, cited
in Chamot, 2001) taught students of Hebrew to remember vocabulary items by
making paired mnemonic associations and found that those who made associations
remembered vocabulary more effectively than those who did not.
In another attempt, Sanaoui (1995) carried out
a study to demonstrate the relationship between vocabulary strategies use and
success in acquiring and retaining vocabulary items. The study
demonstrated that adult learners of L2 vocabulary were likely to fall into two
categories: Those who adopted a structured approach to their learning and those
who did not. Learners in the first group took control of their vocabulary
learning. They did not merely rely on what the language course provided them
with. They used their own initiative in regularly creating opportunities for
vocabulary learning by listening to the radio, watching movies, reading and
using self-study. They kept systematic record of vocabulary they learned by
using vocabulary notebooks and lists. They reviewed what they had done several
times a week. However, the learners in the second group who followed
unstructured approach relied mainly on course material. If they made lists of
vocabulary items, they did not review them and they occasionally lost
them. Sanaoui concluded that students who had a
structured learning approach were more successful in retaining the
vocabulary items taught in their classrooms than learners who had an
unstructured approach. The research suggests that helping learners gain control
over processes for managing their own lexis is an important task in vocabulary
learning and teaching in L2 classrooms.
Thus, going through the literature, one
encounters empirical evidence that strategy use will result in more
effective vocabulary acquisition and recall among L2 learners. This, in turn
justifies why teachers should embark on strategy training. Moreover, the
significance of strategy training is pointed out even by scholars who believe
that context is a major source of vocabulary learning. These scholars have
expressed their concern over how well students can handle context on their own.
Therefore, they have strongly emphasized the teaching of specific learning
strategies to students so that they can effectively learn from context (Coady,
1997).
4. SOME
CONSIDERATIONS TO BE TAKEN PRIOR TO STRATEGY TRAINING
Before
strategy training can be carried out, several issues need to be addressed:
First, teachers need to find out what strategies and in particular what combination
of strategies should be taught. Second, the learning strategies known and
preferred by learners should be identified and taken into account. Third, some
learners may need to be convinced that strategy training is to their own
benefit (Ellis, 1994). Fourth, after deciding what strategies to give attention
to, teachers should decide how much time to spend on training the learners in
strategy use, and they should work out a syllabus for each strategy that covers
the required knowledge and provides enough independent practice (Nation, 2001).
Fifth, when considering which vocabulary learning strategies to recommend to
students, teachers should notice not to take strategies as inherently good.
They should bear in mind that effectiveness depends on the context in which
strategies are used (Schmitt, 1997). The effectiveness with which learning
strategies can be both taught and used depends on such variables as
“proficiency level, task, language modality, background knowledge, context of
learning, target language and learner characteristics” (Chamot &
Rubin, 1994). Finally, teachers should
bear in mind that learners need to understand the goal of each strategy and the
conditions under which it works best. Learners also need enough practice to
feel confident and proficient in using strategies. Therefore, teachers should
provide ample time for strategy training (Nation, 2001). After these issues are
settled, teachers can adopt an appropriate framework for training students in
using vocabulary learning strategies. Below is an instance of such frameworks
which seems to fit the EFL context in
Recommending
a fixed framework for strategy training does not seem to be tenable as it was
already pointed out that a number of variables like learners’ proficiency
level, language modality, task, text, etc. have an impact on the effectiveness of strategies that can be taught and used. Thus, what
follows is a series of options which EFL teachers can have access to but need
to sequence in an appropriate way to best fit their classroom context.
Teachers should decide which strategies to give
attention to and how much time they need to spend on training. In order to
catch a glimpse of the strategies learners need and the ones they are currently
using, students should be asked to draw up a list of strategies they employ to
learn English words in small groups. They report their lists to the class. The
students and the teacher can then, collaboratively construct a list of
strategies the learners employ. After this brainstorming session, the teacher can decide what
strategies learners lack and need most. The teacher should model the
strategy for the learners. Then the steps in the strategy should be practiced
separately. Learners are asked to apply the strategy in pairs while helping
each other. They report back on the application of the steps. The
teacher monitors
and provides feedback
on learners’ control of the strategies. She or he also systematically tests
learners on strategy use and gives them feedback. Learners report on the
difficulty and success in using the strategy outside classroom and they ask for
teachers’ help and advice on their use of strategy (Nation, 2001).
Learners should be given opportunities to examine
the effectiveness of their vocabulary coping strategies. For instance, in
activities like guessing from context, teachers can see what learners do
(Porte, 1988), and learners can assess how effectively they can apply the
inferring strategies they were taught. Moreover, teachers should be cognizant
of the interaction between learners’ awareness of their own learning style and
their ability to take charge of their own learning. Teachers have two options
at their disposal to foster this interaction: They can provide learners with
opportunities to do different vocabulary exercises. This will in turn expose
them to different strategies, and learners will discover which one feels right
for them. Teachers can provide learners with questionnaires to help them gain
insight into what strategies are more suitable for them. The questionnaire
might include such questions as “Do I learn vocabulary more easily doing
speaking activities with my classmates?, Am I comfortable with analyzing
word parts?, Does it work better for me to collect words on index cards or make
word lists?” (Sokmen, 1997, p. 256).
Teachers should also recognize that some
typical vocabulary learning strategies such as using notebooks, dictionary and
expansion exercises like semantic mapping are highly beneficial and could be introduced as early as possible.
Learners can write the words
they encounter on their vocabulary notebook and add L2-L1 translation or other
knowledge they gradually acquire about the words such as collocations, semantic
associations, frequency tallies, roots and derivations. Learners can be reminded to go through their
notebooks regularly in order to add more information and rehearse what they
already recorded. (Schmitt & Schmitt, 1995). The vocabulary notebook could
then serve as a valuable resource.
Semantic mapping is also a useful strategy that
can be introduced to learners at any level of proficiency. It involves drawing
a diagram of the relationships between words according to their use in a
particular text. Semantic mapping has the effect of bringing relationships in a
text to consciousness for the purpose of deepening the understanding of a text and creating
associative networks for words. It is best introduced as a collaborative effort
between the teacher and the class (Stahl & Vancil, 1986, cited in Nation
and Newton, 1997). Such a diagram “visually shows how ideas fit together. This
strategy incorporates a variety of memory strategies like grouping, using
imagery, associating and elaborating and it is important for improving both
memory and comprehension of new vocabulary items”(Oxford, 1990, p. 62). In a
guided semantic mapping, learners work with the teacher to develop a semantic
map around a topic, the teacher deliberately introduces several target
vocabulary items and puts them on the map as well as elaborating on them with
the learners who then use the semantic map to do a piece of writing. If the
writing is done in a group, a learner in the group can be assigned to ensure
that the target words are used (Nation, 2001).
In general, teachers need to decide what
framework and strategies they should choose to focus on based on their
student’s needs, learning styles, proficiency level as well as the task’s
requirements. Thus, frameworks are not fixed and can vary from context to
context.
6. CONCLUSION
AND PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS FOR EFL TEACHERS
In the
present paper, it was argued that vocabulary is
an important ingredient of language and vocabulary learning is an essential
part of second or foreign language learning. Language learners need a wide
array of target language words to be able to tackle successfully both
production and comprehension activities in the second or foreign language. One
way to help learners to enhance their knowledge of L2 vocabulary is through
equipping learners with a variety of vocabulary learning strategies. Different taxonomies have
thus been proposed, and some of which were discussed in the present paper. The significance
attributed to vocabulary learning strategies and to training students in those
strategies they lack may have the following implications for EFL teachers:
Teachers should think of ways to provide less
successful learners with vocabulary learning strategies. This should be done by
making them aware of the need to become independent learners by recognizing the
strategies they possess and those they lack. Learner’s attention should also be
directed toward the strategies successful learners benefit from. EFL teachers
should make learners practice a wide range of vocabulary learning strategies ranging from decontextualized and
mechanical strategies to contextualized ones. This enables learners to deal
with any unknown vocabulary they may encounter both in and out of class
context. Teachers need to bear in mind that individual learners may vary on the
basis of which strategies they consider more useful and they apply more
frequently. Thus, teachers may first need to have an appraisal of learner’s
belief regarding vocabulary learning strategies and then try to help them
gradually realize the value of other types of strategies.
To sum up, learning new vocabulary is a
challenge to foreign language students but they can overcome by having access
to a variety of vocabulary learning strategies. Learners should then be trained
in strategies they lack. To this end, teachers should consider the learners’
willingness and readiness to receive trainings and think of the most
appropriate way to introduce the strategies.
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